James Madison (March 16, 1751 – June 28, 1836) was the fourth (1809–1817) President of the United States. He was co-author, with John Jay and Alexander Hamilton, of the Federalist Papers, and is traditionally regarded as the Father of the United States Constitution.

Early life

Madison was born in Port Conway, Virginia on March 16, 1751. His parents Colonel James Madison, Sr. (March 27, 1723 – February 27, 1801) and Eleanor Rose "Nellie" Conway (January 9, 1731 – February 11, 1829) were the prosperous owners of the tobacco plantation in Orange County, Virginia where Madison spent most of his childhood years. In 1769, he left the plantation to attend Princeton University (it was called the College of New Jersey at the time), finishing its four-year course in two years, but exhausting himself from overwork in the process. When he regained his health, he served in the state legislature (1776-79) and became known as a protégé of Thomas Jefferson. In this capacity he became a prominent figure in Virginia state politics, helping to draft their declaration of religious freedom and persuading Virginia to give their northwestern territories (consisting of most of modern-day Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee) to the Continental Congress. As a delegate to the Continental Congress (1780-83), he excelled as a legislative workhorse and master of parliamentary detail. Back in the state legislature he welcomed peace, but soon became alarmed at the fragility of the Confederation. He was a strong advocate of a new constitution, and played the leading role in drafting and negotiating the main points at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. To foster the ratification effort, he joined with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to write "The Federalist" papers, one of the most influencial documents in American political history. Back in Virginia in 1788, he led the fight for ratification of the constitution at the state's convention--oratorically outdueling Patrick Henry and formidable forces aligned against acceptance of the constitution. For his efforts, Madison is known as the "Father of the Constitution."

Congressional years

When the Constitution was ratified, Madison was elected to the United States House of Representatives from his home state of Virginia and served from the First Congress through the Fourth Congress, and was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party during his final term in the House. In 1789, he successfully offered a package of twelve proposed amendments to the Constitution, the final ten of which became what is collectively known as the Bill of Rights by December 15, 1791, based upon earlier work by George Mason. The chief characteristic of Madison's time in Congress was his desire to limit the power of the federal government. He led the unsuccessful attempt to block Hamilton's proposed Bank of the United States, arguing the new Constitution did not explicitly allow the federal government to form a bank. Most biographers see a sea-change with Madison moving from strong nationalism in 1787-88 to a states' rights position that became extreme in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798. Other scholars, notably Lance Banning, see more continuity, arguing Madison was never caught up in Hamilton's dream of a powerful nation.

During Madison's time in Congress, the debate between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the formation of the first political parties (the first ones in world history). Madison was instrumental in the creation of the Democratic-Republican party, whose members supported Jefferson and believed strongly in limiting centralized power. Opposed to the Democratic-Republicans was the Federalist party, whose members followed Hamilton and believed in a strong central government.

In 1794, Madison married Dolley Payne Todd, who cut as attractive and vivacious a figure as he did a sickly and antisocial one. It is Dolley who is largely credited with inventing the role of "First Lady" as political ally to the president.

In 1797 Madison left Congress; in 1798 he and Jefferson secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions which insisted the states could block unconstitutional federal laws. With Jefferson's victory in 1800-01, Madison became Secretary of State, though he had never travelled abroad.

Secretary of State 1801-1809

The main challenge Madison faced was navigating between the two great empires of Britain and France, which were almost constantly at war. The first great triumph was the Louisiana Purchase on 1803, made possible when Napoleon realized he could not defend that vast territory, and it was to France's advantage that Britain not seize it. Madison tried to maintain neutrality, but at the same time insisted on the legal rights of the U.S. under international law. Neither London nor Paris showed much respect, however. The Jefferson administration decided on an Embargo to punish Britain, which meant forbidding all Americans to trade with any foreign nation. The Embargo failed as foreign policy and instead caused massive hardships in the northeastern seabord, which depended on foreign trade. The Republican Caucus chose presidential candidates for the party, and Madison was chosen in the election of 1808, easily winning election. The Embargo was repealed just before Madison took office.

Presidential years 1809-1817

British insults continued, especially the practice of using the Royal Navy to intercept unarmed American merchant ships and "impressing" (seizing) all sailors who might be British subjects for service in the British navy. Madison's protests were ignored, so he helped stir up public opinion in the west and south for war. One argument was that an American invasion of Canada would be easy and would be a good bargaining chip. Madison carefully prepared public opinion for what everyone at the time called "Mr. Madison's War," but much less time and money was spent building up the army, navy, forts or state militias.

In the ensuing War of 1812, the British won numerous victories, including the capture of Detroit after the American general surrendered to a small force without a fight, and occupation of Washington, D.C., forcing Madison to flee the city. The British also armed American Indians in the West, most notably followers of Tecumseh. Finally a standoff was reached on the Canadian border. The Americans built warships on the Great Lakes faster than the British, and gained the upper hand. At sea the British blockaded the entire coastline, cutting off both foreign trade and domestic trade between ports.

After the defeat of Napoleon both sides were exhausted, the causes of the war had been forgotten, and it was time for peace. New England Federalists, however, set up a secret defeatist Hartford Convention and threatened secession. In 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the war, allowing each side to keep the territory it held when the treaty was finalized. The Battle of New Orleans, in which Andrew Jackson defeated the British regulars, was fought 15 days after the treaty was signed but before it was finalized. With peace finally established America was swept by a sense of euphoria and national achievement in finally securing independence. Madison was hailed and the Federalists fell apart and disappeared from politics, as an Era of Good Feeling emerged with a much lower level of political fear and vituperation.

In his last act before leaving office, Madison vetoed a bill for "internal improvements," including roads, bridges, and canals:

"Having considered the bill...I am constrained by the insuperable difficulty I feel in reconciling this bill with the Constitution of the United States...The legislative powers vested in Congress are specified...in the...Constitution, and it does not appear that the power proposed to be exercised by the bill is among the enumerated powers..." [1]

Madison rejected the view of Congress that the General Welfare Clause justified the bill, stating:

"Such a view of the Constitution would have the effect of giving to Congress a general power of legislation instead of the defined and limited one hitherto understood to belong to them, the terms 'common defense and general welfare' embracing every object and act within the purview of a legislative trust."

It should be noted that although Madison would support internal improvement schemes only through constitutional amendment, he urged a variety of measures that he felt were "best executed under the national authority," including federal support for roads and canals that would "bind more closely together the various parts of our extended confederacy."

Cabinet

Supreme Court appointments

Madison appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• Gabriel Duvall — 1811
• Joseph Story — 1812

States admitted to the Union

• Louisiana – April 30, 1812
• Indiana – December 11, 1816

Later life

After leaving office, Madison retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Virginia, not far from Jefferson's Monticello. He engaged in extensive correspondence on political affairs, and served as rector of the University of Virginia for ten years until his death. He died on June 28, 1836 of rheumatism and heart failure, leaving no children. His detailed notes on the Constitutional Convention were published after his death. By his request, these notes were not to be published until the death of the last signer of the constitution. The implication is that Madison did not want the thoughts and debates of the founders to shape the nation's interpretation of what the Constitution meant. He strongly believed that the text, and only the text, should be consulted.

Madison's portrait was on the U.S. $5000 bill. There were about twenty different varieties of $5000 bills issued between 1861 and 1946, and all but three had James Madison. Madison also appears on the $200 Series EE Savings Bond.

Trivia

• At 5 feet, 4 inches in height (163 cm) and 100 pounds (45 kg) in weight, Madison was the nation's shortest president and frequently ill. He was too frail for military service during the Revolution.

See also

• U.S. presidential election, 1808
• U.S. presidential election, 1812
• List of places named for James Madison
• List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations
• University of Virginia, where he was Rector of the University from 1826 to 1836
• James Madison University, named Madison College after him in 1936

References

Primary Documents

• James Madison, James Madison: Writings 1772-1836. (Library of America, 1999), over 900 pages of letters, speeches and reports.
• William T. Hutchinson et al., eds., The Papers of James Madison (1962-), the definitive multivolume edition, still incomplete.
• Gaillard Hunt, ed., The Writings of James Madison (9 vols 1900- 1910).
• James M. Smith, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776-1826. (3 vols. 1995).
• Jacob E. Cooke, ed. The Federalist. (1961)
• James Madison. Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787. [2]

Secondary Sources: Scholarly Biographies

• Irving Brant, James Madison (6 vols., 1941-1961)
• Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (1971)
• Jack Rakove, James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic (2nd Edition 2001).
• Garry Wills, James Madison (2002)

Secondary Sources: Analytic Studies

• Robert A. Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (1990)
• Lance Banning, The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Creation of the Federal Republic, 1780-1792 (1995)
• Drew R. McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (1980)
• Drew R. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (1989).
• Stanley M. Elkins and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1993).
• Marshall Smelser. The Democratic Republic 1801-1815 (1968).
• Robert Allen Rutland, ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751-1836: An Encyclopedia. (1994)
• John C. A. Stagg. Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American republic, 1783-1830. (1983).

J. C. A. Stagg "James Madison and the 'Malcontents': The Political Origins of the War of 1812," William and Mary Quarterly (Oct., 1976)

J.C.A. Stagg, "James Madison and the Coercion of Great Britain: Canada, the West Indies, and the War of 1812," in The William and Mary Quarterly(Jan., 1981)

External links

• The James Madison Papers, 1723-1836 from the Manuscript Division at the Library of Congress, approximately 12,000 items captured in some 72,000 digital images.
• The Papers of James Madison from the Avalon Project
• James Madison's brief biography
• Madison's last will and testament, 1835
• A history of the Madison family since the 17th century
• Official White House page for James Madison
• Madison Archives
• Works by James Madison at Project Gutenberg